BEVIS OF HAMPTON: FOOTNOTES

1 Lines 23-24: It would have been better had he forsaken her than lose all his land

2 Lines 41-42: The king did not wish him to take her away, for anything alive

3 Lines 59-60: All day he would rather be in church / Than in my bower

4 Lines 184-86: "Yes," she said, "from a wild boar I think, if memory serves me right, remedy [will come] for all of the fever"

5 Lines 341-42: I do not care what kind of death he dies, / As long as he is cold

6 Lines 400-02: Unless you go hence very quickly, / You shall rue it [as] many times / [As] you come there

7 The wicked ones who betrayed him were lying

8 That he almost lost his countenance (identifying features) there

9 You blame him (the horse), who has no control [over the situation]

10 "I will," he said, "no matter who does not want me to"

BEVIS OF HAMPTON: NOTES

Abbreviations: A: Auchinleck; Kö: Kölbing; E: Egerton 2862; C: Cambridge University Library MS Ff. 2.38; CC: Caius College MS 175; N: Royal Library, Naples MS XIII, B29; M: Chetham Library, No. 8009

This edition follows the text of the Auchinleck MS (A), fols. 176-201. We have followed Kölbing's edition and used E (Duke of Sutherland, now Egerton 2862) to account for the leaf that is missing in A, for the lines in our edition numbered 2289-2464. Kölbing's emendations to the MS are listed in the notes, both where we have accepted his reading and where we have preferred to follow the MS or made other choices. We should also point out that standard paleographic abbreviations in the MS are presented as emendations in the Kölbing edition, emendations he prints in italics in the text of his edition. In citing his edition in our notes, we have not maintained this distinction.

1 The incipit bears an illustration of a knight standing in full armor holding a lance. Perhaps this is an indication of a wealthy patronage and the making of this collection in a London bookshop. See Laura Hibbard Loomis, "The Auchinleck Manuscript and a Possible London Bookshop of 1330-1340," PMLA 57 (1942), 595-609.

11 schire. In the Middle Ages a shire was a province or subdivision of a county. Many cities in England retain suffixes that indicate a seat of government. A modern ana-logue for shire would be county.

15 As the notes to the other romances have reminded us, in Middle English, double and even triple negatives add emphasis. Unlike in modern English a double negative does not constitute an affirmative.

25 An elde a wif he tok an honde. A: An elde wif. Kö's emendation recognizes the youth of the bride. It is the bridegroom who is overly mature.

34-42 That the emperor of Germany is a former lover as indicated here sets up the unhappy marital relation. The bride, who is never identified except as Bevis' mother, is dissatisfied because her choice of husband has been thwarted by her father's uni-lateral decision.

62 fight. MS hard to read here.

91 ferste dai. A: ferþe. Kö's emendation is in agreement with E, S, N, and C readings as well as medieval celebrations of May Day, a day dedicated to love.

133 ferste day. A: ferþe. Kö's emendation is consistent with the emendation in line 91. S, N, and C: first.

143 And thou schelt after her wedde to spouse. A: þow schelt after wedde to spouse. Kö emends by adding her as object of the completed quest. Though the lady's desire is known, the emphasis on marriage as a reward is significant.

148 Gladder icham. A: Glad. E and N: I am gladder. The emendation is Kö's based on E and N readings.

173 levedi was right wel apaid. A: levidi ri¥ t wel apaid. Kö adds the intransitive verb, based on its presence in C.

190 tresoun mest. Treason in the Middle Ages connotes treachery or betrayal of someone to whom one owes loyalty. Treason is thus not only a personal transgression, but a political transgression as well.

203 The earl wears less armor than he would if he knew he were facing a combat situation.

245 The exaggerated number of knights is a convention of medieval romance. Often the hero performs superhuman deeds in battle killing hundreds and thousands of opponents single-handedly. See line 4532 for the extreme instance.

292 The messenger speaks the words he is told to speak, conveying the message verbatim. Messengers play an important role in medieval romance; they not only convey dialogue, but act as narrative links. Oftentimes the messenger takes the brunt of the recipient's anger. Bevis himself will play the role of messenger later in the poem.

302 Vile houre. Bevis calls his mother a "vile whore" and wishes her to be drawn to death. Drawing or dragging, usually accompanied by quartering, entailed tying each limb to a separate rope then pulling the body in opposing directions by four horses, literally tearing the victim's body into four pieces. The punishment was usually reserved for felons of the worst sort.

307 thee faire ble. The scribe regularly spells the pronoun the. On the assumption that the pronoun was pronounced with a long ', we have transcribed the pronoun the as thee. Although the poet generally uses thee in objective (dative and accusative) situations, possessive and nominative usages are likewise commonplace. For other possessive placements, see, for example, lines 310, 374, 482, 540, 557, 564, 605, 896, 918, 922, 925, 1097, 1107, 1109, 1132, 1196, 1317, 1474, 1736, 2188, 2202, 3164, 3169, 3211, 3628, 3633, 3656, 3738, 3837, 4087, 4428; for nominative use, see lines 531, 1043, 1082, 1103, 1233, 1422, 1843, 2121, 2124, 2188, 2203, 3657, 3658, 4227; and for dative of agency, which we translate with an "it is" syntax, see lines 1007, 2210; or as a reflexive pronoun, see lines 1006, 1733, 3015, 4374, 4426, and 4427. He also uses me in all three functions. E.g., see lines 671 and 1043.

310 alle wif. Bevis imagines his mother a madame in a brothel.

315 And be of elde. A: ben of elde. E and N: be of. C: come to. Kö clarifies the line.

320 That child she smot with hire honde. One of many scenes of domestic violence. Not recognized by medieval law, violence among family members was considered a private matter with parents having customary rights to corporal punishment of their children.

322 The child fel doun and that was scathe. A: Þe child fel doun and þat scaþe. Kö adds an intransitive verb.

323 meister. Although Saber is Bevis' uncle he is also his guardian, mentor, or, perhaps, teacher, which is a common gloss on ME maister. See also lines 487 ff. where Bevis comes to his "teacher's" defense. Saber's name may have significance (from OE sigebush, meaning "victory fortress"); Saber is the faithful keeper of the estate and the faith, throughout Bevis' prolonged absence, and ultimately becomes earl of Hampshire. He is not to be confused with the bishop of Cologne, Saber Florentine, who appears in lines 2926 ff.

325 The knight was trewe and of kinde. Kö adds the possessive pronoun his before kinde to confer a "nature" upon the knight. The emendation is unnecessary.

347 Like the huntsman in Snow White and various other folk narratives, Saber circumvents the commands of a wicked mother by slaying an animal.

395-99 The role of the porter is often stressful in medieval literature since it is he who decides who is worthy of entrance into the city or castle.

398 Scherewe. From this term derives "shrew." In the Middle Ages the term connoted "rascal," "rogue," "wicked person," "evil-doer," and "unruly or ill-disciplined child." It could also refer to an overbearing woman.

415-20 Bevis' novel means of entry defies protocol.

443 a smot him with. A: a smot him him wiþ. This duplication of words is a typical scribal redundancy in A.

454 Wo hem was for the childes sake. The knights sympathize with Bevis and let him go. Perhaps, they are also afraid of him.

496 painim londe. The term could mean anyplace outside of Christian Europe. Painim could refer to any group of people not practicing Christianity.

497 Bevis' mother is participating in an activity that goes well beyond fostering and is reminiscent of the actions of Joseph's brothers when they sell him into slavery in Genesis. Or perhaps Orestes, when Clytemnestra puts him away. Like Orestes, Bevis will return seeking vengeance for the murder of his father. Fortunately for him the mother dies on her own so that he is not compelled to exact justice for her treason. But he does take care of her lover, his stepfather.

499 mor and lesse. A: mor & lesse. Kö: mor or lesse. We have retained the MS reading as a commonplace idiom implying "all."

510 be him mild. A: be us mild. E: him. Kö capitalizes Him, as if to ask Christ's mercy for Bevis rather than for "us," as in A.

515 The trip is given short shrift. In the course of two lines, they have sailed out of England and arrived in the Middle East. The land, as indicated in other MSS, is called Ermony, which usually refers to Armenia.

520-22 The contrast between snow and blood as well as the attention to the shoes on Josian's feet recall fairy tale motifs such as those of Cinderella, Snow White, and Rose Red. The allusion would not be farfetched since fairy tales and folk tales, then as now, were present in virtually every culture in the world. Both genres are integrally related to medieval romance.

531 Mahoun was a common name for Mohammed in Middle English. In the standard Middle English treatment of the Islamic people (most often called Saracens in Middle English), he is treated as one of many "pagan" gods, rather than as the historical prophet of the one God, whose Arabic name is Allah.

548 Wikked beth fele wimmen to fonde. Proverbial, though not cited in Whiting or Tilley. The sense is "Many women prove to be wicked."

558 Apolyn is another of the "pagan" gods of the Saracens according to medieval understanding. This treatment of Islam is commonplace in English romances, especially the English Charlemagne romances. See Alan Lupack, ed., Three Middle English Charlemagne Romances (Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Publications, 1990).

594 I not never, what. A: I no never. C: never not.

599 The Saracen finds Bevis' ignorance laughable because even he knows the significance of the day.

688 Thai were aferde, hii wer nigh wode. A: Þai were hii wer ni¥ wode. Aferde is omitted in A. Kölbing emends on the basis of other MSS' readings.

690 losengers. According to the MED this term has a range of meaning including: "one who curries favor," "a flatterer," "liar," "backbiter," "calumniator," "hypocrite," "traitorous counselor," "rascal," "coward."

707 Lemman. A term of endearment usually reserved for one's beloved. Bevis' response to Josian's declaration suggests an epiphany born of love.

844 seith the bok. The poet uses a convention of medieval romance to lend authority to his narrative. Often the "book" is French. Here it may be more than convention since this poem has a French source.

860 maught. Though the usual sense is "might" or "strength," when used to describe a weapon the sense may be "power," "craftsmanship," or "virtue."

861 The naming of a sword is commonplace in medieval romance and epic: Arthur's Excalibur, Gawain's Galantyne, Beowulf's Hrunting, Roland's Durandal, Oliver's Glorious, and Siegfried's Griel are a few.

885 So tho is a lite stounde. Kö: And tho, on the basis of E.

897 Josian's equation of love-longing as captivation is a feature of medieval ideas of courtly love. Love captures its victim with a hook or arrow and causes pain and suffering. As Andreas Capellanus explains in the Art of Courtly Love: "love is like an inborn suffering."

899 Thus that maide made. A: Þus that maide maide her mon. Kö transforms a noun to a verb for the sake of clarity.

904 Bevis' decision to take the decapitated head of the boar to the king rather than to Josian (see line 832) is no doubt related to the attack of the envious steward. He needs to prove his deed, i.e., the slaying of the beast. The steward's plan to steal the boar's head away from Bevis in order to claim his own prowess is thwarted when Bevis, in the process of defending himself, kills the steward and his accomplices. He then has an opportunity to bring the head of the steward to the king but decides against it. He has already been charged with treason once. Should the king misconstrue Bevis' story, he could face another charge of treason. Josian, who witnesses the whole scene, discloses Bevis' act later as an endorsement of his candidacy for knighthood.

924 Brademond threatens to deflower Josian and pass her on to a member of the lower classes, a serious threat indeed, given the value placed upon female virginity and social ranking in the Middle Ages.

931 And tolde hem how Brademond him asailed hadde. A: And Brademond him asailed hadde. Because A omits the first clause in the line, Kö emends following E and N: And tolde hem how.

945 to the teth. A: to the deþ. To be "armed to the teeth" is a familiar aphorism. See also lines 3644 and 4485. To be "armed to the death" makes little sense.

993 ferste scheld trome. trome (from OE truma) is a rank of warriors, a body of armed men; the ferste scheld is the vanguard, the first ward. Bevis leads his choice retainers into battle, a gesture to which the enemy instantly responds. In E the equivalent gesture is contained in the line Beues gan than his horne blowe, to which the enemy responds.

1010 wod. We have borrowed the anachronistic gloss "berserk" from Scott's nineteenth- century usage (OED) to describe the "wodness" of medieval battle frenzy. Scott's neologism provides a useful modern term for which there is no better equivalent.

1016 sonne set in the west. A: sonne set ri¥ t. E and N: sonne in the west. Kö's emendation which completes the rhyme and mends the breech in material.

1041 "Merci!" queth Bradmond, "ich me yelde. A: Merci! queþ, ich me yelde. Kö confers the speech upon Brademond, which clarifies the textual confusion.

1049 St. Martin, probably of Tours (316-97), was a soldier who later became a monk and bishop in Gaul. While Martin was still a soldier, he came upon a naked beggar near Amiens in Northern France and cut his cloak in half to give the poor man something to wear. Later Martin dreamed that Christ himself was the beggar. Martin's life and frequent miracles were popular legend in the Middle Ages. His feast day, 8 November, became known in England as Martinmas. See David Hugh Farmer, Oxford Dictionary of Saints (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 265-66.

1051 Al that ich do, it is his dede. A: Al þat ich do, it is dede. Kö: it is his dede. The emendation is based on E and N.

1054 Thow schelt werre. E, N, and C add a negative adjective, i.e., never to warre, which is consistent with the oath Bevis demands from Brademond.

1066 Mani dai a maked him feste. E and N: a wykked fest. Kö retains A. The implication is that had Bevis known what Brademond would do to him he would/should have killed him rather than show mercy.

1098 "For Gode," queth Beves, "that ich do nelle! A: For gode, queth, þat ich do nelle! Here Kö confers speech upon Bevis. Also see line 1110.

1108 Than al the gold. EN: good.

1110 "For Gode," queth Beves. A: For gode, queþ he. Kö's emendation confers Bevis with direct address as in line 1098.

1132 daunger. This term is often related to the practices of courtly love, wherein a would-be lover could act in an aloof and distant manner. According to the MED it could also mean "domination, power, control, or possession" and "threaten to cause difficulty or damage" as Josian seems to here, at least in Bevis' perception of her declamation of love.

1166 Aboute hire nede. This is a very short line, lengthened in C: Of þat y went about your nede.

1168 So te misain. A: So te misin. Kö: So te misain a. Kö silently emends A here. But his reading improves the line.

1192 wimmannes bolt is sone schote. Proverbial; not in Tilley or Whiting. The proverb implies lack of discretion, sone suggesting "haste" or "carelessness." Compare Malory's The Great Tournament, where the huntress shoots anone and misses the hind but hits Lancelot's buttocks.

1210 Hit were gode, sire. A: Hit gode, sire, þat he were slain. Kö: It were gode, sire. Kö emends on the strength of N and C.

1239 Al in solas and in delit. A: Al in solas in delit. Kö: Al in solas and in delit on the basis of C.

1288 That Sire Beves gan of-see. A: Beves gan of. Kö's emendation.

1289 St. Julian is the patron saint of hospitality.

1331 He ne wolde love me non other. A: He ne wolde me non oþer. Kö adds "love" to the line.

1344 A cleimede his eritage. To claim a heritage is to assert a legal right to something, to demand title to something.

1380 Tervagaunt (usually Termagant) is another member of the Saracen pantheon.

1398 kende. We have glossed the term as "gentle," which seems to be closest to the primary sense of the term in this unctuous usage; "noble," "lordly," "spirited," "courageous," "brave," "dutiful," or "loyal" might do as well. See MED kinde (adj.) 4 and 5.

1412-18 Though a scoundrel, Brademond has some sense of honor; since Bevis once defeated him but did not kill him, Brademond will imprison Bevis rather than execute him. Had Bevis not previously shown his prowess, Brademond says that he would have executed him before sundown.

1422 under the fet. The point is that Bevis will no longer eat from a table. His prison is a pit twenty fathoms deep. Food and drink are dropped to him. That the stench would be suffocating is no harder to imagine than it would be to endure. Entrance and egress is by rope, which later proves to be his salvation. See lines 1537 ff.

1424 A quarter was an actual unit of measurement for grain. According to the OED it was equal to eight bushels of wheat.

1448 What dai awai whanne a wolde wende. A: What dai whanne. Kö adds awai.

1468 That I lovede ase min hertte blode. Josian's expression of love is intensified by the anatomical reference.

1469-72 Magic rings are commonplace in romance traditions. Lunette gives one to Yvain in Chrétien de Troyes' Yvain: The Knight with the Lion to protect him from harm. Rings are also used as means of identification or for signifying a courtly relation. Lapidary was a subject of great interest in the Middle Ages and gemstones often had symbolic meaning as proof of their power.

1483 Of that feste. A: If þat feste. Kö: Of þat feste. In the MS, the "I" is one of the large decorated initials.

1487 Men graithede cartes and somers. A: Men graicede cartes and somers. Kö: graiþede.

1571 His browe stank. Apparently the wound on his forehead putrifies before forming the scar.

1584 The suffering servant motif seems to be operating here. Exegetical tradition holds Christ to be the prototype. Bevis' descent and eventual ascent may mark him as a Christ figure or at the very least a mythic hero in Northrop Frye's sense of the term. See The Secular Scripture.

1612 With a strok me doth adoun falle. A: Wiþ a strok me adoun falle. Kö's emendation is based on E and N.

1614 ther-of may ben awreke. A: þer of ben me awreke. Kö's emendation is based on C.

1630 by the rop. A: be rop. Kö's emendation based on N.

1733 fox welp. An insult equivalent to heathen hound.

1756 undertide. A: undetide. Kö's emendation. The time designated by this term is noon, thought to be a particularly significant moment during the day, i.e., the time at which demons could tempt vulnerable humans. See John Block Friedman, "Eurydice, Heurodis, and the Noon-day Demon," Speculum 41 (1996), 22-29.

1799 ase wel alse man. Kö adds the wel.

1800 In this somewhat convoluted comparison, a contrast is made between the innocence of fish, who as creatures lacking reason are not able to sin, and the perfidy of Saracens, who are thought by implication to be guilty of the death of Christ.

1872 Bevis is making a grim and ironic joke about the tonsure, the "close shave" that identified medieval clerics.

1951-53 The sense is "if King Brademond and all his offspring were right there."

2058-66 The beggar's or pilgrim's disguise is a popular practice in medieval romance as well as epic poems such as Homer's Odyssey. An effective strategy for entering a hostile city, it suggests the "invisibility" of those members of society at the bottom of the social ladder.

2128 quene to eche palmare. A: quene to palmare. Kö adds eche to maintain the meter as well as to indicate direct, individual contact since the noun is singular.

2161 made miche pride. A: made made miche pride. Kö deletes the redundant verb.

2164-66 Perhaps the sense is that "it is many a man's bane to be laughed at today before the steed is caught," that is, many will try and fail (before Bevis comes along).

2203-06 The sense here is that if in England anyone can testify that Josian is married, she will return to her homeland with nothing but the smock on her back. She is suggesting that the marriage is unconsummated, which would render the relation invalid.

2210 do be rede. Kö emends to do be me rede on the authority of E and N. In so doing he clarifies Bonefas' directive, i.e., to take his advice on an escape strategy, though emendation may not be necessary.

2217 chevalrie. The term might be glossed as "chivalry," but in the sense of "horsemanship" rather than "courtesy," which subsequently displaces the earlier meaning.

2286 that we wer thore. A: þat were þore. Kö's emendation; the first-person plural pronoun clarifies the line.

2289 Cité of Diablent. From here to line 2464 the narrative is missing in A. We follow Kö's usage and use E for the intervening lines. The E scribe has a propensity for capitalization which has been emended here according to modern usage.

2352 Ascopart. Giants enjoy a long and varied history in Scripture and medieval romance. They are depicted usually as villains, apostates, arrogant, threatening monsters, and descendants of Cain (e.g., Nimrod, Goliath, Grendel, and the giants of Rabelais). There is at least one exception to the negative portrayal of giants through the ages: St. Christopher, a benevolent giant, is said to have carried the Christ child across a treacherous river. In Bevis, Ascopard is remarkable in that he falls in between.

2379 The lions seem to be in a rampant position similar to how they would appear in heraldry.

2390-94 A commonplace of medieval lore was that virginity could confer invulnerability. Also, the taming of wild beasts occurs through their recognition of the virgin queen. Only a female virgin could lure the wild unicorn into her presence. In iconography the unicorn lies blissfully with its head in the virgin's lap.

2485 And be the right leg she him grep. A: he him grep. Kö restores gender to the lion grabbing Bevis by the right leg.

2503 upon a mule. Where this mule comes from is not explained. It simply appears when needed as the knight and his lady set out. Given the recent fact of Josian's conversion, the trope perhaps suggests female virtue. Compare Gower's Constance in Confessio Amantis as she rides out to meet her father "Upon a Mule whyt amblaunt" (II.1506) and Una's mount as she sets out with Redcrosse Knight in the Faerie Queene, I.i.29 Or it may simply be an appropriate mount for a royal woman as in King Alexander, where Cleopatra "rod on a mule white so milk" (line 1031). Religious connotations are also possible as seen in Jesus' entrance into Jerusalem; riding on an ass rather than a warhorse denotes him as the Prince of Peace, not a conquering military hero. The Virgin Mary is also depicted in iconography riding an ass toward Jerusalem to give birth, then later during the flight into Egypt. The "wild ass" was associated with Ishmael and became a symbol of conversion.

2569-70 come withouten ensoine / To the haven of Coloine. Compare Richard the Lion Hearted, ed. Brunner (1913): Fforþ þey wenten wiþuten ensoyne / To þe cyte off Coloyne, as cited by MED ensoine (n.). That MS dates from c. 1475. Not many words rhyme with ensoine (or Coloine), which may be a factor. See also lines 2657-58 and 2891-92, where the words are rhymed.

2585 Who is this with the grete visage. The bishop is referring to Ascopard.

2601 dragoun. The dragon ("drake" or serpent) is one of the most vivid beasts created by the medieval European imagination. As serpent it represents the archetype of temptation in the Garden of Eden. In its more imaginative manifestations it becomes the beast of Revelation, a symbol of pure evil, who opposes the archangel Michael and his angelic forces. Its presence in medieval romance usually points to the hero's extraordinary prowess.

2603-07 Wade, Lancelot, and Guy of Warwick are great heroes in the romance tradition. By comparing Bevis' exploits to theirs, the author is authenticating Bevis' credentials as a hero of the first rank, and is also exemplifying the fact that the romance is a self-conscious genre, with individual romances constantly referring to characters and incidents in other romances and to their own sources. Notice, for example, the number of times in Bevis that we are given lines such as "as the book saith," or "as the French book saith." Such lines also remind us that medieval writers held written authority in high esteem. A reference to an earlier book is not simply a footnote, but a validation from an "auctor." (This Latin word means both author and authority at the same time.)

2611 Apulia is in Southern Italy, as is Calabria. One of the distinguishing features of Bevis is a kind of geographical sweep. Italy here joins with Germany, the near east, and many parts of England as part of that sweep.

2637 Toke here flight. A: To here fli¥ t. Kö restores the appropriate verb.

2640 Tuscany is in north-central Italy. It is the region of such cities as Florence, Siena, and Pisa.

2665 The cholle is that part of a dragon's anatomy which extends from the chin to the throat and from ear to ear.

2673 wintonne. A wine tun is a wine barrel.

2693 Thanne a herde. Bevis' vision comes in two phases: first a vision of one wounded by a mad king who is saved by a virgin; and second of one swollen with venom from a dragon. Both visions pertain to his own precarious situation.

2698 me never non. A: me never mo. Kö's emendation which improves the sense and rhyme.

2747 There are many saints named John. Perhaps the invocation is to John of Patmos, who, in the Middle Ages, is often credited with the writing of the Book of Revelation. The apocalyptic, cosmic battle depicted there features a fierce, seven-headed dragon.

2749 Beves answerde. A: Beves answede. Kö clarifies the action.

2762 anan. A: anan. More usually anon, this may be scribal error. Kö retains the variance, nonetheless, and so have we.

2802 Bevis' taking of refuge in the healing well as he fights the dragon is echoed in Redcrosse Knight's retreat to the well of virginal virtue after the first and second days of fighting in Spenser's Faerie Queene. Note Bevis' second venture in the well in lines 2850 ff. It is not mere coincidence that in line 2817 Bevis calls upon St. George for strength. See note to line 2817.

2815 of is helm a drank thore. The line is perhaps echoed in Chaucer's Tale of Sir Thopas (CT VII.15), though there the parallel is attributed to "sire Percyvell."

2817 St. George is the martyr and patron of England. The story of George and the dragon was immensely popular, disseminated through the twelfth-century Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine which was then translated by William Caxton in the fifteenth century. But, according to the Oxford Dictionary of Saints, the story was known in England as early as the seventh century. Edmund Spenser's portrayal of Redcrosse Knight in the Fairie Queene reiterates St. George's status as patron saint of England.

2838-39 The story of Jesus' raising of Lazarus from the dead is told in the Gospel according to John, ch. 11. Because it was considered one of Jesus' definitive miracles, it is often used when asking God's help in extremely precarious, not to say seemingly hopeless, situations.

2848 bacinet. A basinet is a supplementary cap worn under the helmet.

2852 dai other night. A: dai the ni¥ t.

2879 See note to line 2665.

2882 yenede swithe wide. Because of its armor plate the only way that Bevis can get to the dragon's heart is through its throat; thus the dragon's wide-mouthed gasp proves fatal to the beast.

2897 And asked that. A: And asked at. Kö replaces the thorn.

2967 Ac ever, an erneste and a rage. Perhaps this suggests that he was not only serious, but angry as well.

2976 mesage for to don anon. A: message for don anon. Kö adds to don anon on the basis of M.

2985-06 Note the irony of giving Bevis a version of his own history.

3105-08 The sense of this passage seems to be that because the emperor has sex with his wife too frequently, his aim has been affected. Distorted vision, thought to be an effect of sexual excess, is also used as a metaphor by some medieval writers.

3180 Here soper was ther redi dight. A: Here soper wer redi di
t. Kö restores the meter on the evidence of E and N.

3187 ff. It was not unusual for witnesses to observe a newly married couple in bed in order to validate the marriage. The issue of whether consent or sexual intercourse were necessary for a valid marriage was vexed in the Middle Ages. David Herlihy writes: "The most common opinion was that consent alone was sufficient, but some experts continued to affirm that physical union perfected the marriage and rendered it binding" (Medieval Households [Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985], p. 80).

3217 Kö provides the following explanation of "rail-tree": "On bed curtains, see Our English Home, p. 101: 'Bed-curtains hung upon rails of 'tre' or metal were in use [at this time] . . ." (p. 323).

3244 That al wide opun it wonde. A: upon. Kö: opun on the basis of N.

3248 A caudle is a drink, often taken for medicinal purposes, consisting of thin gruel, wine, and spices.

3289 In hire smok. A: In hire hire smok. Kö eliminates the redundant pronoun.

3340 Ich wende he hadde ben anhonge. A: Ich wende hadde ben anhonge. Kö adds he for the sake of clarity.

3352 Mani hondes maketh light werk. Whiting cites Bevis (c. 1300) as the earliest recorded instance of this proverb.

3356 A pitched battle is a particular strategy in medieval warfare.

3362 Hit scholde some of hem rewe sore. A: some of rewe sore. Kö adds hem to restore the meter.

3391 that other ladde. A: þat oþe ladde.

3392 As Kö notes, the King of Scotland dies later at the hands of Ascopard. According to the French text, Saber murders the Scottish king.

3453 Ful of pich and of bremston. A: Ful of bich. Kö emends the pitch based on the other MSS.

3511 Whitsunday is the English name for Pentecost, the Christian feast, coming fifty days after Easter, which celebrates the descent of the Holy Spirit to the Apostles and is considered the "birthday" of the Christian church. It is described in Acts of the Apostles, ch. 2.

3513-42 Horse races for the accumulation of wealth are not often found in medieval romance. But they were common in practice. See, for example, The Voyage of Ohtere, where the one with the swiiftest horse gets the most. Here the race functions as a demonstration of Arondel's "horsepower."

3590 Ascopard's betrayal is ostensibly caused by Bevis' fall into poverty, but is just as likely a jealous response. The proclivities of fairweather friends appear in other Middle English romances. See, for instance, Sir Cleges in Middle English Breton Lays, ed. Anne Laskaya and Eve Salisbury (Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Publi-cations, 1995). Nonetheless, Ascopard does have trouble maintaining credibility, despite his good deeds.

3622 swerdes a logge pighte. A: swerdes logge pi
te. Kö's emendation based on other MSS.

3629 God forbede. A: For for bed. Kö restores the deity based on E, N, C, and M: God for-bede.

3630-31 Childbirth was strictly the provenance of women in the Middle Ages. Josian's rejection of male interference reflects that custom. Also, the birth of twins is notable since medieval folklore sometimes held that multiple births were the consequence of many fathers rather than one. Often, because of the social stigma the birth of twins accrued, one twin could be subject to death or exile. See Lay le Freine, for instance.

3634 Josian is invoking the Virgin's help in childbirth.

3640-50 The abduction of the heroine is particularly violent. Other abductions such as that of Guenevere have not been depicted as brutally as this scene. Adding to the brutality is the fact of Josian's recent parturition and the abandonment of her twins.

3714 "Heathen" seems to be a curious way to describe the children. As we find out a few lines later (line 3734), however, it refers to the fact that they have not yet been baptized, a condition that is swiftly remedied.

3749 A mark was an accounting measure (not an actual coin) used in medieval England, equal to thirteen shillings fourpence.

3772 Though it is not clear whether Aumbeforce is a real or an imagined place from the text, A. C. Baugh points out that in the Anglo-Norman original Aumberforce is the city of Seville (p. 21).

3775 St. Thomas of India is actually one of the twelve original apostles, most famous as "doubting Thomas," because of the story in John's Gospel (ch. 20) in which he refuses to believe the resurrection of Christ until he can put his fingers in Christ's wounds. According to ancient tradition he brought the gospel to India, where he was martyred.

3776 Terri's answer to Bevis is a way of saying that they have never been cowards, that is, they have never been afraid to fight face to face.

3785 The Spanish city of Toledo was famous for the manufacture of steel and weapons. The form of the word is French, indicating the influence of the Anglo-Norman version of Bevis.

3844 St. James and St. Giles are both important pilgrimage saints. James, one of the twelve original apostles, was thought to have preached in Spain. Santiago de Compostela, in northwestern Spain, where his body was thought to be found, was one of the most important pilgrimage centers of the Middle Ages, the most important in western Europe. Giles, a hermit from either the sixth or eighth century, is the patron saint of cripples and beggars. His shrine - Saint-Gilles, in Provence - was also an important pilgrimage center in the Middle Ages.

3859 This probably refers to the entire eastern Mediterranean, rather than to anything more specific.

3871 ase he yede aboute. A: ase yhe yede aboute. Kö's emendation clarifies gender.

3910 Josian's entrepreneurial activity, i.e., "as a minstrel," recalls an episode in the romance of Apollonius of Tyre in which Apollonius' abducted daughter escapes service in a foreign brothel by thwarting the desire of those seeking her services by her rhetoric. Once out, she takes up harp playing and pedagogy to support herself.

3960 pleide at the talvas. A talevas is a round shield, or buckler. To play at the talevas is an idiom for fencing. See MED talevard.

3978 mautalent. A: mauntalent, with the n by abbreviation. MED ignores the n but cites the passage as an "erroneous" spelling of the term.

3990 This refers to a king's ransom. By comparison Chaucer was ransomed for £16 when he was captured by the French during the Hundred Years War. This was considered a significant amount of money in the fourteenth century.

4028 Er than he Saber eft ise. A: Er than he Beves eft ise. Kö restores Saber to his role.

4034 And broughte hit to Mombraunt be southe. A: And brou¥t it Mombraunt. Kö's preposition restores clarity and meter.

4037 That Beves scholde abegge sore. A: abegged sore. Kö maintains a sensible verb tense: abegge sore.

4040 tan. A northern form of taken, the sense being to "turn attention to" (MED taken 23a); "to embrace," "consider," "pick up," "proceed," "perceive a course," "assent," "apply ourselves," or "follow counsel," "take up the thread," or "deliberate."

4054 The purse and staff here signify that Saber is going in the guise of a pilgrim.

4082 Josian stod in a toret. A: Josian stond.

4088 Jesu Crist him yilde is mede. A: him yilde him his mede.

4091 he is in point to spille. A: he is point to spille. Kö's emendation.

4168 As the notes to the earlier romances indicate, time was usually measured according to the monastic offices or prayer services. Prime is the first of the monastic offices, which takes place at 6 a.m. Prime can thus refer specifically to 6 a.m. or to the time between 6 and 9 a.m. Undern refers to the time between 9 a.m. and 1 p.m., or sometimes noon to 3 p.m..

4185 The sense of this is that Bevis' prayers have tamed the valor of Yvor.

4266 "For God," queth Saber, "that is nought feir." A: For god, queþ, that is nought feir. Other MSS assign the quotation to Saber.

4272 is owene sone Terry. That is to say, we are back talking about Saber's own son, not Bevis' sons, who are mentioned in the previous verse.

4437 See note for line 4168.

4453 Tidinge com to Potenhithe. A: Tidynge to potenhiþe. Kö's emendation.

4469 The Harrowing of Hell is the medieval English term for Christ's descent into hell after His death to defeat the powers of evil. This is also one of the most widely depicted scenes in medieval literature, art, and drama, often vividly presenting Christ opening the jaws of hell-mouth and leading the Old Testament patriarchs and prophets to salvation. See, for example, William Langland's Piers Plowman B.XVIII.270 ff. (Skeat 1.538-40) for a powerful Middle English version of this event.

4490 This seems to be an especially roundabout way of saying that they killed them.

4522 ff. That he ne lai ded upon the grounde. / And whan Beves segh that sighte, / In hertte he was glad and lighte. The order here is difficult and convoluted. Perhaps it goes something like this: "So that he might get there [without delay], he did not dare ask for a doctor to heal his wound so that he should not lie dead on the ground." The final line here starts to move off on a tangent.

4534 ledene halle. Kö capitalizes Ledene. MED does cite Ledynhall as a specific place name, noting that the place was also called Laurence Hall.

4608 Sein Lauarauns. Saint Lawrence died as a deacon and martyr in Rome in 258 A.D. He is usually depicted with a gridiron, on which he was reputed to have been executed by roasting. Relics of St. Lawrence were sent from Rome to King Oswin of Northumbria in the seventh century.