AMIS AND AMILOUN: FOOTNOTES

1 You shall be arrested according to the laws of the land

AMIS AND AMILOUN: NOTES

I have used the following abbreviations in these textual and explanatory notes: A: Auchinleck Manuscript; D: Bodleian Manuscript; E: Egerton Manuscript, H: Harley Manuscript; HS: Lillian Herlands Hornstein in J. Burke Severs, A Manual of the Writings in Middle English; K: Eugen Kölbing, ed., Amis and Amiloun; L: MacEdward Leach, ed., Amis and Amiloun; MED: Middle English Dictionary; W: Henry Weber, ed., Metrical Romances.

I have based my text on A except that the beginning (lines 1-52) and the end (lines 2441-2508) are lost. Following W and L, I have supplied these lines from E. A has incomplete or damaged versions of lines 53-96, but I have used E for these lines for the sake of ease of reading, unless the fragmentary A version is overwhelmingly persuasive. For a full discussion of the manuscripts see L, who lists all variant readings in all manuscripts. Although L is the definitive critical edition, I have adopted his emendations, suggested in footnotes, only when there would be confusion in reading the text if I did not. I have expanded contractions and corrected obvious scribal errors without comment.

2 hend(e) has a variety of meanings: gracious, courteous, lovely, nearby, skillful, and others. It is probably just a polite form of address here.

5 of. Omitted in E, it appears in D and H and is adopted by L.

9 toun and tour. One of a number of common formulas in the poem like wele and wo, bryght in bour, lef ne lothe, proude in pride, for soth without lesying, and worthy in wede. See Ford, “New Conception of Poetic Formulae,” for more information on formulaic structures throughout this text.

13 gan: "began to" or "did" as an auxiliary is common throughout the poem. Similarly, lete is often used as an auxiliary meaning "cause to do."

14 unkouth . . . of kynd. I have glossed this line "unaffected by their lineage," i.e., "not proud or haughty." L prefers Rickert's "they were not kin," though he does so without conviction and also mentions (without citation) Weston: "their kinsmen knew them not," and Kölbing: "extraordinary they were in character" or "what unknown ancestry they were" (p. 113).

20 trouth plyght. The pledging of such an oath of loyalty was a serious matter and probably implied exclusivity in the deepest bond of friendship (cf. lines 361–72). The phrase is often used of marriage or betrothal vows (MED). See Ford, “Merry Married Brothers,” for more information on this vow and the paired cups (lines 255–52).

25 Here and elsewhere L cites relations of the English text to French versions.

30 worthy were in wede. Variations on this formula are common in this poem.

58 E: twel yere olde; A: twelve winter old. The use of "winter" better suits the poem's overall tendency to use alliteration.

59 E: were noon so bold; A: was ther non hold. Although E is grammatically correct, A seems to provide a smoother progression for the sentence as a whole.

61 E: y; A: ich. I have left E's reading for purposes of consistency within this section. Later, when A becomes the base, I use A's more common form: ich.

64 E omits sende and finishes the line his honde; A: sende his sonde. A makes such good sense that I have followed L in substituting A for E.

65 fre and bond. This formula depends on the distinction between freemen (and nobles) who held their land in permanent tenure as opposed to bondmen who held land under some form of feudal obligation. Erles, Barouns are capitalized in the manuscript, though not consistently elsewhere (e.g., line 86).

73 E: of; L follows H: and, which seems to make more sense. A is missing this segment of the line.

73-74 A has only the second halves of these lines and has them in reverse order. Like L, I see no reason to disturb E, which is being used as the base for this section of the poem.

76 E: comyn; A: samned. I have used A because it is more precise, "gathered," and does no violence to the rest of the E line.

79 A: aplyght; E: pyght. Although A is arguable, I, like L, use pyght, "adorned," because it makes better sense in this physical description.

91–96 Ford argues in “Contrasting the Identical” that, despite their apparent similarities, Amiloun is portrayed as the more masculine and Amis as the more feminine throughout the tale.

97 A becomes the base text at this line.

101 A repeats line 98; I have followed L in using E.

120 proude in pride. This formula occurs frequently and can be variously rendered as "proud in their pride," "proud in honor," or "in their pride."

188 botelere. Although the word can refer simply to a chief servant in charge of dispensing food and drink, the office granted Amis is more likely "A nobleman of the royal court having various duties, including that of supervising the king's buttery and that of acting as royal cupbearer on ceremonial occasions" (MED).

189 A repeats line 186; I have followed L in using the E, H reading.

191 chef steward in halle. L quite rightly rejects K's association of halle with the place of appointment and instead considers "steward in halle" as a special office which involved overall management of the affairs of the castle and was ordinarily held by a noble.

231 God me spede. Here and in line 300 this phrase seems to have the sense of the modern vernacular "God help me."

244 goldsmithe. A: goldsmitþe. A scribal efficiency, whereby the þ is made by a loop following t that leads in a single stroke to e.

280 herkneth. L reads hekeneþ here and in lines 517 and 1189.

296 A: faily; I have preferred E: faile.

314 A: Amis; E, D, H: Amylioun. Amis is clearly the wrong character; L follows E, D, H. I have emended to "Amiloun," the more common spelling in A.

334 bright in bour: literally "beautiful in bower," a common formula in this poem.

350 Stewards in medieval literature were notorious for treachery. See the false stewards in Havelok, Gower's Confessio Amantis II:2496-2781, and the treacherous stewardship of Mordred in the Alliterative Morte Arthure. It is no wonder that Orfeo in Sir Orfeo takes precautions upon his return to see that his steward has been faithful.

361 These lines echo Amiloun's parting words (lines 308 ff.).

365 to the. Only found in A. Omitted in the other MSS. L deletes.

389 Strictly speaking, Amis is not a traitor since he has not broken an oath to the steward.

395 slo. Literally a sloeberry; since "not giving a sloe" is no longer idiomatic, I have glossed the line: "don't give a fig."

398 wrethe. A: wretþe. Also in lines 404, 718, 830, 1092, 1213, 1322, and 1785. A scribal efficiency. Similarly wrethi in line 606 is spelled wretþi in A. See note to line 244.

438 halle. L emends to hale, on the witness of E, thus improving the eye-rhyme with tale and sale.

448 mirie. L: miri.

478 A adds with him after might, an eye-skip from the following line.

487 com. L reads as come here and in lines 1549 and 2153. A, W, and K read com.

505 The episode that begins here contains both the familiar "love temptation" in a garden and the conventional "love-longing" of the courtly love tradition.

550-51 The sense of these lines, a bit confusing because of Middle English use of negatives, is that she would for no one hesitate to make her way to him.

617 A canon was an ordained clergyman who was not under monastic rule, usually attached to a cathedral or church (MED).

645 drawe. Amis fears that, if he succumbs and the duke finds out, he will be executed and "drawe," dragged behind horses - neither a cruel nor unusual punishment for such a breach of fidelity and chastity.

686 des (dais): "The place occupied by a king, councillors, judges, etc." (MED).

721-23 In medieval romance, a preferred time for sexual intrigue is often when the lord is away hunting. See the Stanzaic Morte Arthur and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.

726 Sche went, as sche wele kan. In a note L prefers some version of E, D, H: Wel right the way sche nam. Kan is, however, a legitimate past form of connen: "to have the ability to do something" (MED).

758 Seyn Tomas of Ynde. In John 21:25 ff., doubting Thomas placed his hand in the wound in Christ’s side, thus proving His resurrected corporeality. According to saints’ lore, Thomas proselytized in India, was martyred and buried. Stories about him abound. In one legend he opens Mary’s tomb to see if she is still there. When he finds her body gone, he looks up and beholds it ascending. She drops him her girdle (a sign of chastity), thereby affirming the Assumption. Mandeville claims to have visited Thomas’ tomb in India (Travels, ch. 20) where the Apostle’s hand is kept in a separate vessel and used to make just assessments of hard cases: the hand casts aside false claims and clings to the just. It is fitting that the maiden Belisaunt calls upon Thomas as she chastises Amis for his doubts about her love: Whi seystow ever nay? (line 759).

768 L supplies she. The word is needed, but I have followed E, H: sche.

771 hem for to here. I have followed E by inserting Their consail at the beginning of the line.

785 It was common in romances to swear by saints, though here St. John the Apostle is especially popular. See lines 832, 956, 1918, 2161. Ford argues that the saints’ lives invoked throughout this text are simply variations on a formula used to fit different rhyme, meter, and alliterative needs, but have no special meanings (“New Conception of Poetic Formulae,” pp. 218–24).

796 St. James the Greater, whose body is said to be buried at Compostela, Spain, which consequently became a major pilgrimage site. There does not, however, seem to be any special significance here for Saint James, just as there does not seem to be elsewhere for St. Thomas of Inde (line 758), St. Giles (lines 952, 1126), St. Denis of France (line 1567), or St. Martin (line 2014).

835-40 The sense is that, if anyone has lied about him and the duke's daughter, he (Amis) will challenge the lie by combat.

849 Ataint implies conviction of a serious crime subject to the death penalty or loss of civil or property rights (Oxford English Dictionary).

860 An ambiguous line. L observes that Rickert believes the daughter is speaking in this line and translates "among" as "before" but that H "rather confirms the reading: and her mother swore continually (ever among)."

872 In medieval law a "borwe" was someone who offered himself as a surety or guarantee for someone else's appearance at court. If the charge was a capital offense, the guarantor might forfeit his life (MED). Thus, threats are made later to burn the "borwes." Note also the difficulty Guinevere has in getting guarantors when she is accused of killing the Scottish knight in the Stanzaic Morte Arthur (lines 1328 ff.).

939 A: wrorth; E: wroth (accepted by L and me).

950 A: no nother, but I emended to non other, an obvious false juncture.

952 Seyn Gile. A hermit saint who founded the monastery in Provence bearing his name. The place became an important pilgrimage center on the routes to Compostela and the Holy Land. There were several English festivals honoring him as well. His patronage was thought to be beneficial to travelers, cripples, lepers, and mothers in childbearing. Amis calls upon Saint Gile as he sets out to help Amiloun, little aware of the multiple role that the saint could play in his life as he becomes crippled with leprosy that may be cured only with a baby's blood.

984 Waileway. An interjection of lament, a "woe is me" or "woe the day" sentiment.

988 L explains that knights wore long coats that had to be tucked up for walking or riding (p. 123).

1054 L supplies a for a letter in A that looks like r.

1077 sorn. K defines as "scorn"; L prefers "mockery" from French sorne. I prefer MED: "grief, sorrow, distress, trouble, harm." MED cites Guy of Warwick as well as Amis and Amiloun. The word also appears in line 2141.

1109-10 Judas sold (betrayed) Christ for "thirty pieces of silver." Christ died "on Rode" (on the Cross), thereby redeeming mankind from Adam and Eve's sin. Similar references are common in this and other medieval poems.

1164 The sword lying between a man and a woman, as a sign of chastity, is common, as in various tales of Tristan and Isolde. See L, p. lxiii.

1176 A: wardles; E: worldes. I read warldes, which appears elsewhere in the poem and is a simple transposition of d and l in A.

1217 The tonne (barrel) was apparently meant to conceal their nakedness — an odd delicacy of feeling under the circumstances.

1252 And sayd. A: say. K emends to And sayd, followed by L and me. W reads Stay.

1253 passioun: Christ's passion is comprised of His last sufferings and culminates in the Crucifixion.

1290 Each participant in the combat had to swear an oath as to the truth of his cause; the winner was vindicated.

1339 That. A: The. K's emendation, followed by L and me. W follows A.

1456 unkende: possibly "unnatural" or "untaught" (L); more likely here "different from her kind (family)."

1508 sesed: "put in legal or formal possession (of a kingdom, land, feudal estate, goods, etc.)" (MED).

1511 Of course, Belisent (Belisaunt) is not, strictly speaking, a maiden at this point.

1540–45 Here Amiloun is being punished for pretending to be Amis in the "ordeal." Leprosy was often seen in medieval literature as a punishment by God and frequently used as a metaphor for moral corruption. See Saul N. Brody, The Disease of the Soul: Leprosy in Medieval Literature (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1974).

1546 In gest to rede. The "geste," which is the narrator's source, is probably one of the Anglo-Norman versions of the tale or an English redaction of an Anglo-Norman source. The story was ubiquitous in both romance and hagiographic versions. See L, pp. ix-cii. The narrator frequently refers to his "gest" or "book" or "romance," but no specific identification of the source has been made.

1567 Saint Denis (also known as Dionysius) is popularly known as the patron saint of France, and legend has it that he carried his severed head to the location where his abbey church was to be built.

1568 A: Te; I have followed L in preferring E, D: The.

1653 The five wounds of Christ were from the nails in his hands and feet and the spear in his side.

1678 A: wrorn; I follow L in preferring E, D: sworn.

1711 messais, meaning "suffering from starvation," "hungry," "needy," "wretched," "feeble," "miserable," etc. See MED misese and its variant spellings. L and K read messaner without conjecture as to the meaning.

1769 A: mensenger. Like L, I have followed E, D: messanger.

1771 praieste: probably a Northern form of praieth the (L). The sense of the lines 1769-73 is "He sent me as a messanger because he cannot walk and begs you to send him enough of his goods to buy an ass to ride on."

1816 hem. L: him.

1864 cité toun. A town became a city if it had a cathedral.

2008 gold. A: glod. Emended by all.

2014 Saint Martin, known as Martin of Tours, was a soldier who refused to kill Christians. The popular story about St. Martin is that he split his cloak with a naked beggar. This is significant because Amis is, at the time of this oath, instructing his servant to do an act of charity for the begging leper, Amiloun.

2113-24 This stanza is omitted in A. These lines correspond to D lines 2012-24.

2136 that. Reduplicated in A.

2206 A: childer; like L, I have followed E, D: brother.

2209-20 This stanza is omitted in E, D.

2226 care. A reads wo, which is crossed out, and care is added in the margin in another hand.

2242 A: min; like L, I have followed E, D: thin.

2293 hadde. A: hadde hadde with the second hadde deleted.

2397 The rest of the text is from E, following L and the advice of HS.

2399 Tomorow as in E. L reads Tomorrow.

2405 A has this variant spelling of Amiloun here and in lines 2407 and 2425. E has it in 2461, 2485. E has Amylyon at 2476.

2424 E: agoo; like L, I have followed D: away, which maintains the rhyme.

2442 steede. L reads steed.

2472-74 Omitted in E; I have followed L in using D.