THE VISION OF TUNDALE: FOOTNOTE

1 That it (i.e., fealty) be yielded by their right hands

THE VISION OF TUNDALE: EXPLANATORY NOTES

Abbreviations: see Textual Notes.

11 In Yrlond byfyll. Marcus, the author of the original Latin version, was an Irish monk. Ireland is an appropriate location because of its tradition of mythological "otherworlds" and because many visions of the Christian afterlife are associated with Ireland from at least the time of the Ecclesiastical History (731) of Bede, who narrated "The Vision of Furseus" under the year 633.

16 in tho story. The reference to a source, which recurs throughout the poem, is appropriate in that the story ultimately comes from Marcus' Latin prose Tractatus, though the immediate source of this version of the poem is not certain. In any case, the reference to a source is a common way of establishing "authority" in both religious and secular literature. N.b., the A scribe frequently writes tho for the definite article "the" as well as the demonstrative pronoun "those"; e.g., lines 489, 507, etc.

23-28 full of trychery . . . And ever slouthe. The poet lists the seven "deadly sins": pride, anger, envy, lust (lechery), gluttony, greed (covetousness), and sloth. These are the seven root sins, the dispositions, sinful in themselves, which underlie all other sins. St. Gregory the Great (c. 540-604) referred to them as "capital sins" because they lead to others. They were often used as a means for the examination of conscience, especially before auricular confession, which revived in the twelfth century. They are the basis of the structure of Dante's Purgatorio and Gower's Confessio Amantis, are crucial to Chaucer's Parson's Tale, and Piers Plowman B.5, and are frequently cited in penitential literature. See Morton W. Bloomfield, The Seven Deadly Sins: An Introduction to the History of a Religious Concept, with Special Reference to Medieval English Literature (East Lansing: Michigan State College Press, 1952). Line 23, however, in the original Latin version lists an eighth deadly sin "treachery," which the early Irish Church added to the tradi-tional seven.

29 warkus of mercy wold he worch. Besides avoiding sin, it was required, or at least strongly counseled, that the Christian perform works of mercy. According to Church tradition, there are seven spiritual and seven corporal works of mercy. The spiritual works are to instruct the ignorant, counsel the doubtful, admonish sinners, bear wrongs patiently, forgive offenses willingly, comfort the afflicted, and pray for the living and the dead; the corporal works are to feed the hungry, give drink to the thirsty, clothe the naked, harbor the harborless, visit the sick, ransom the captive, and bury the dead. The corporal works are loosely based on scriptual passages: the first six on Matthew 25:31-46, the seventh on Tobias 1:17-19. The spiritual works seem simply to be generally drawn from scriptural ideas. However, both groups of works of mercy are listed and explained in many highly popular fourteenth-century manuals of religious instruction, such as the Speculum Vitae, the Speculum Christiani, and the Prick of Conscience. They also appear often in graphic form in the fourteenth century.

31 charyté. The Christian's primary duty is charity, the love which is central to the Christian message. Of the three theological virtues (faith, hope, and charity), it is called the greatest by St. Paul (1 Corinthians 13:13) because it will last into eternity. The importance of charity has many other scriptural bases, such as Luke 10:25-27; 2 Corinthians 9; Galatians 6:6-10. The goal of charity is pure love of God for His own sake, but that love is manifested in works of mercy.

38 boghthe. A common medieval usage for "redeem" based on the etymological meaning of "redemption": "to buy back" (redemptare).

40-44 Tundale's soul separates from his body. This is the most common mode in vision literature. It differs from narratives like Sir Owain and the Divine Comedy, in which the visionary enters the next world body and soul.

45 Purgatory. The narrator promises that Tundale will see both Purgatory and Hell, though most of what he sees seems infernal except for the suggestion that early release is sometimes possible and the fact that Tundale himself is undergoing a kind of purgation.

53 leyn. Usury, the taking of any interest on loans at all, was formally forbidden by the Fourth Lateran Council (1215), though it had long been condemned by the early Church. It is punished in Dante's Inferno 17, is prominent in Sir Owain, stanzas 96-103, and was a frequent subject in medieval art. The word leyn, thus, may simply mean "to lend," though the MED lists one meaning of the verb lenden as "to allow (a longer time) for repayment of a loan."

76 malycoly. Melancholy is "one of the four humors, black bile" (MED). When out of balance with the other humors (yellow bile, phlegm, and blood), black bile was thought to cause melancholy, sadness, and ill will. The MED also defines it as "anger, rage, hatred" and "sorrow, gloom, anxiety."

103 bellus yronge. In addition to tolling the hours of the day, especially the canonical hours of prayer, church bells were rung to call Christians to worship, to recognize other significant events, and especially to note the death of a parishioner.

104 "Placebo" and "Dyrge." Placebo is the first word of the first antiphon for Vespers in the Office of the Dead (Officium defunctorum). Dirige is the first word of Matins in the same liturgy. The Office of the Dead included psalms and short prayers appropriate to the canonical hours of Vespers, Matins, and Lauds, along with a recitation of the seven Penitential Psalms (6, 31, 37, 50, 101, 129, and 142 in the Vulgate) and a litany. The Office was recited at the time of death and, usually, on commemorative dates after the death, e.g., a month, a year, etc. For a more complete explanation of the canonical hours, see The Gast of Gy, explanatory note to lines 202-05.

108 veyne corale. The "vena cephalica" or "median vein" (MED). The median vein runs through the arm and into other veins which eventually join with the jugular vein. Thus, the warmth on the left side of Tundale's body suggests that the venous system is still functional.

113 none. MED lists this word as "the canonical hour of nones; thus three o'clock p.m." and "midday, the period about 12:00 noon." Both uses existed, though I prefer the latter for symmetry with line 112.

118 gost departyd. Although Tundale's soul has left his body, he has some "bodily" form since he suffers some physical punishments during his journey.

123 wend to a byn. Compare C line 181: He wend to have be. See also C line 200, which repeats the phrase. A often uses a as an abbreviated form of hav or han (e.g., lines 124 and 137); and byn as a participial form of the verb to be in lines 142 and 189. The idiom is repeated in line 142.

127 mydylerde. Besides "the earth," the word could refer to "worldly things as opposed to divine or spiritual" (MED). It is implied in phrases like "for all the world."

133 The poem is divided by A into an introductory section, ten passus, seven gaudia, and the reversio anime (change or turning of the spirit or heart.) The beginning of the first passus is actually marked in the margin at line 135: j passus, but, because it makes more sense, I have moved it to follow line 132, as G does. A passus, etymologically a pace or step, is "a section, division, or canto of a story or poem" (OED). Passus are usually more regular in length than in The Vision of Tundale. Since the passus in this poem correspond with moving on to another segment of Hell, it may be that A, the only scribe to use these divisions, had in mind passus in a different etymological sense: suffering.

134-36 a full loddly rowte . . . as wyld wolfus thei cam rampyng. These are clearly infernal demons, denizens of Hell. The vision at this point is of Hell, though the effect on Tundale is educational and purgatorial.

159 fowlest stynk. The poet repeatedly emphasizes the stench. Hell is a place of pain not just by fire (and ice) but through all of the senses.

199-218 Wher his now . . . withowton mercy. Using a variant of the ubi sunt trope ("where are . . ."), the fiends taunt Tundale with the transience of worldly riches that have no use after death. They refer to the fact that Tundale has not received the sacrament of Penance (lines 215-16) and therefore deserves Hell for his sins. They are literally correct, though Tundale is in fact being given a second chance. Finally, they assert that suffrages, in this case masses and prayers for the dead, will do him no good. Suffrages also included other works such as fasting and almsgiving on behalf of the dead. The efficacy of suffrages was an important part of the doctrine of Purgatory, as in The Gast of Gy, Sir Owain, and many works of fiction and theological instruction especially from the twelfth century. Aquinas' view was especially prominent, based on his notion on the doctrine of the Com-munion of Saints - the essential unity of the saved, the living, and the suffering souls in Purgatory.

226 emer. Guardian. Travellers to the next world characteristically have guides, providing the possibility for didactic dialogue. The guides included St. Michael (The Apocalypse of St. Paul, fourth century), St. Nicholas (The Monk of Eynsham, late twelfth century), St. John (The Vision of Thurkill, early thirteenth century), but from The Vision of Drythelm (Bede, Ecclesiastical History, 731) and The Vision of Wetti, early ninth century, the guide was usually a "guardian angel," an angel especially assigned for the protection of an individual. Although the idea of a "guardian angel" was never defined as dogma by the Church, it has a venerable history. It was variously based on Matthew 10:10 and the apocryphal Book of Tobias, but taken seriously by St. Jerome, St. John Chrysostom, Aquinas, and Duns Scotus.

237 bryght. A common adjective for angels in works such as The Vision of Drythelm, The Gast of Gy, and many others.

276 Latin Note: After line 276, A has, boxed in red: Uniquique secundum opus suum, etc. ("For thyself renderest to a man according to his work" - Psalm 61:13 in the Vulgate). The verse is paraphrased in the poem at lines 275-76.

302 Latin Note: After line 302, A has, boxed in red: Cadent a latere tuo mille et decem millia a dextris tuis, ad te autem non appropinquabit ("Though a thousand fall at thy side, and ten thousand at thy right hand, naught shall come nigh to thee" - Psalm 90:7 in the Vulgate). The verse is paraphrased in the poem at lines 303-07.

325 cubytus. "A measure of length (orig. the distance from the elbow to the top of the middle finger); usually, eighteen inches" (MED).

337 seyd. MED gives seyd as a form of set(ten), but does not cite this passage. Perhaps the word is a form of seien (MED v. 14), meaning "commanded," "prescribed," or, as my gloss suggests, "determined." "Set" makes the best sense, however.

355-56 But of this peyn . . . yett thu hast deservyd hit. The angel assures Tundale that he will not experience this particular torment, though later he does suffer physically, an experience shared by Furseus in his vision (seventh century) but by few other visionaries. The travelers ordinarily suffer emotionally or psychologically like Sir Owain.

364 pyche. Pitch, that is "wood tar, especially as a means of torture in hell" (MED). The OED expands: "A tenacious resinous substance, hard when cold, becoming a thick viscid semi-liquid when heated."

brymston. "The mineral sulphur," perhaps more pertinently "burning sulphur" (MED).

407-10 he saw a bryge . . . won fotte in brede. The narrow bridge between two mountains recalls bridges over Hell in The Apocalypse of St. Paul (late fourth century), The Vision of Sinniulf by St. Gregory of Tours (538-93), Sir Owain, and other poems about the next world. It is a common "test" motif, perhaps dating to antiquity. In The Apocalypse of St. Paul and its thirteenth-century early Middle English version, "The Vision of St. Paul," the bridge crosses all of Hell. In Sir Owain it leads to the "terrestrial paradise." Tundale's narrow bridge is only one foot wide and 1,000 steps long. It is perilous, for he sees souls falling off it into the fire below and only the holy palmer (pilgrim) is seen to traverse it safely.

453 serewyse. The word can mean "in a diverse way, variously" (MED), but in context the adverbial use of sere seems more probable: "physically apart; asunder," or "individually, separately" (MED).

469 baelys. Specifically "a bundle of sticks used in flogging" (MED).

478 Akyron. Acheron. In Homer and elsewhere in Greek antiquity, Acheron was the main river of the underworld. In Latin and Hellenistic poetry, Acheron came to be the underworld itself (OCD). The appearance of Acheron as a demonic character calls to mind the beasts, like Geryon (Inferno 16-17), that Dante puts in his Hell.

490 Latin Note: After line 490, A has, boxed in red: Absorbebit flumen et non mirabitur et habebit fiduciam, quod influat Jordanus in os eius. Amen. ("Behold, he will drink up a river, and not wonder: and he trusteth that the Jordan may run into his mouth" - Job 40:18 in the Vulgate). A corresponding idea is expressed in lines 491-94, in which Satan replaces the behemoth of Job.

508 Forcusno . . . Conallus. Forcusno and Conallus appear in Marcus' original Latin version as Fergusius and Conallus. Only A mentions them, suggesting that he was the only scribe with access to Marcus' original as opposed to the slightly shortened versions of Helinand and St. Vincent of Beauvais (M, p. 61). Fergusius and Conallus are the Latinized names of Fergus mac Roich and Conall Cearnach, prominent pagan characters in the Irish Ulster Cycle and cohorts of the famous Cúchulain. For Fergus, see The Tain, from the Irish epic Táin Bó Cuailnge, trans. Thomas Kinsella (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), and for Conall, see the particularly amusing Fled Bricrenn, "Bricriu's Feast," translated in The Celtic Heroic Age: Literary Sources for Ancient Celtic Europe and Early Ireland and Wales, ed. John T. Koch in collaboration with John Carey, third ed. (Andover, MA: Celtic Studies Publications, 2000), pp. 76-105.

568 A wondur long, narow brygge. The Vision of Tundale uniquely includes a second bridge, this one over a lake full of souls. It is even narrower, a hand's breadth, than the first bridge, and crossing it is a man, who stole from the Church, bearing a burden of grain. This is the bridge over which Tundale must lead the "wild cow." It is curious that the man and Tundale are going in opposite directions, thus causing a traffic jam (lines 665 ff.) from which Tundale is saved only by the angel's intercession, thus allowing him to stop leading the cow (lines 683-88). The description is long and amusing, even comic.

588 After this line R explains that the man has stolen the grain from his neighbor's field.

603-04 But sum haght more peyn and sum lase / All aftur that her synnus his. Although robbers have been mentioned before, this is the first specific reference in the poem to degrees of punishment related to the severity of the sin, a traditional early Christian concept clearly manifested in Dante, but rare as a literary trope before the fourteenth century.

610 Sacrileggi. A sacrilege is any sin against religion, but more strictly was applied to abuse of a sacred person (clergy), place (church), or thing (e.g., liturgical vessels.) It could manifest itself in striking a priest or unchastity by the priest himself, in the violation of a holy place or use of a holy place for secular purposes. Thus, it could range from theft from or desecration of a church to the action of a priest administering the sacraments while in a state of sin.

612 seyntwary. "A holy or sacred place; a place dedicated to God." More specifically, it could mean, besides the church itself, "a churchyard; a burial ground, a cemetery" or "land owned by or under the jurisdiction of the church" (MED). In ecclesiastical usage it often designated the part of a church, set off from the rest, where the priest actually said Mass and the sacred vessels were kept.

620 teythe. Tithes, one-tenth of income due the Church for its own support and for charity. Tithing is mentioned in various contexts in the Hebrew Scriptures as early as Genesis 14:20 and 28:22, but it was not common in the early Christian Church. It was first enjoined by the Council of Macon (585). At first it was one-tenth of profit from land, but was extended to any kind of earned income (bequests were generally exempt). Tithes were at first paid to the bishop, but by the twelfth century were generally paid directly to the parish priest. Failure to pay tithes was a serious offense and could result in charges being brought in an ecclesiastical court with the possibility of excommunication.

706 wyldernys. "Wild, uninhabited, or uncultivated territory; trackless, desolate land . . . a desert" or, by extension, "a state of ruin or desolation, the condition of devastation" (MED).

735-38 In these lines, which are in none of the other MSS, A provides the fiends with a remarkable catalogue of farm implements as instruments of torture.

784 Preston. In C, P, R: Pystryne; in B: Pistroun. The Latin has Fistrinus. I know of no one who has identified this figure under any of these spellings.

814 Latin Note: After line 814, A has, boxed in red: Misericordia plena est terra, etc. ("The earth is full of his kindness" - Psalm 32:5 in the Vulgate). The verse is a response to Tundale's questioning of God's mercy in lines 811-14.

836-46 the sowle som peyn schalt have . . . To the blysse withowtten ende. The angel describes some kind of purgatorial experience, since he is referring to souls which will pass from pain to salvation, even though such souls do not seem to have a separate, distinct location.

888 snowt. "A human nose . . . used derisively" because the primary meaning was "The snout of a swine, boar, rhinoceros, dog, dragon, etc." (MED).

909-54 The invasion of the bodies of the damned by biting adders is mentioned in The Apocalypse of St. Paul (late fourth century) and in many later visions. The presentation in this poem is particularly gruesome and specially applied to corrupt clergy (lines 960-62).

967 ordyr. A religious order, as of monks or friars, bound to some rule of life such as that of St. Augustine or St. Benedict.

971-72 for the same thow hast bene, / This schalt thu thole. Once again Tundale must suffer physically. This is odd in context since the punishment has been assigned to corrupt clergy and particularly lines 945-46 seem to associate Tundale with this group. It is possible that here, and in a few places later, the scribe has pre-served an oddity in Marcus whereby there is some confusion, intentional or not, of the vicious, worldly Tundale with the monk-author.

1002 dongyll. This is a very unusual word. In the MED it is spelled "dingle," with no examples or cross-references, and defined as "a deep dell or hollow." The OED says a bit more under "dingle": "A single example meaning 'deep hollow, abyss' is known in the 13th century; otherwise the word appears to be only dialectal in use till the 17th century." The only example given is from Sawles Warde (1240). The OED defines the probably related word "gill" as "A deep rocky cleft or ravine, usually wooded and forming the course of a stream," the earliest example being from The Destruccion of Troy (1400). Regardless of the paucity of exam-ples, the meanings in the MED and OED seem to fit the context in the poem.

1018 Latin Note: After line 1018, A has, boxed in red: lata est via que ducit ad mortem ("for wide is the gate and broad the way that leadeth to destruction" - Matthew 7:13). The verse is paraphrased in lines 1017-18.

1042 Vlkane. Vulcan, the "ancient Roman god of destructive, devouring fire," who was "highly admired, secretly feared" (OCD). From Greek antiquity, his counterpart, Hephaestos, was a blacksmith. This conflation of the Greek and Roman gods fits the hellish context perfectly.

1223 Thee tharre not thynke. "No thought must come to you." The construction is apparently an unusual dative of agency, analogous to "me thinks," in which the subject is acted upon, and is thus in an oblique case.

1296 more and lesse. A common medieval line-filling formula here meaning "completely."

1305-60 An extended description of Satan, who simultaneously punishes and is punished. The idea of Satan was developed in the early Church out of a long tradition in antiquity and a variety of comments in Hebrew Scripture (e.g., Isaias 14:12-15). Literally, Satan means "the accuser." He is the author of all evil. The notion of the fall of Satan was developed in the early Church from texts such as Apocalypse 12:4-11 and Jude 1:6, but more elaborately in the apocryphal Book of Enoch. The fall of Satan and the other rebellious angels was taken seriously by Church Fathers and Doctors including Augustine and especially Aquinas, who asserted (ST 1.qu.63a6) that Satan's sin must have been pride, wanting to be "as God." In this poem, as in the tradition of vision literature including Dante, Satan is in the deepest pit of Hell suffering the greatest torments.

1342 sponne. "A unit of length variously reckoned as corresponding to the distance from the tip of the thumb to the top of the middle or the little finger when the hand is fully extended . . . a hand's breadth" (MED).

1363 gloand folus. I.e., "fiery imps." See MED fol n 2: "an impious person, a sinner, a rascal."

1411-12 the furst creature / That God made. The Middle English suggests that God created Satan before all other creatures, which is consistent with the sequence of creation in all of the drama cycles. In Cursor Mundi's account of creation we are told that humankind was created to fill the gap left by Satan and the other fallen angels. Compare Gower, Confessio Amantis 8.21-34. (See Russell A. Peck's discussion in Confessio Amantis, vol. 1 [Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Publications, 2000], p. 226.) Augustine discusses the point in his Enchiridion on Faith, Hope and Charity, ch. 29, "The Restored Part of Humanity Shall, In Accordance with the Promises of God, Succeed to the Place Which The Rebellious Angels Lost." See also Augustine, De civitate Dei, Book 22, ch. 1. Marcus says: Hic est Lucifer, principium creaturarum Dei ("Here is Lucifer, the principal of God's creatures"), and may simply be suggesting the eminence of Lucifer before his fall, though principium probably means "first."

1436 Latin Note: After line 1436, A has, boxed in red: Potentes tormenta paciuntur ("The mighty shall be mightily tormented" - Wisdom 6:7). The sense of the verse is developed in lines 1437-44.

1495-1502 Tundale and the angel have entered the "terrestrial Paradise," the Garden of Eden. Most in the Middle Ages believed that the Garden of Eden had a physical location and many searched for it. Augustine and Aquinas saw it both as the literal place where Adam and Eve lived and fell and, figuratively, as a place of spiritual rest and beauty. It was sometimes considered a stage in the movement from Purgatory to Paradise. For some it was considered a beautiful and tranquil place where the saved, or those who had completed purgation, waited until the Day of Judgment, Doomsday, for admission to Heaven. By the time of The Vision of Tundale, the general view was that it was a transitional abode, as in The Gast of Gy, and that the saved went to Heaven after purgation, if necessary, was completed. Indeed, suggestions by Pope John XXII that it was a holding place until Judgment Day were considered potentially heretical. A place of sweet-smelling air, flowers, gems, and song, the prime literary example is in Dante's Purgatorio 27-32.

1504-28 The Vision of Tundale has a kind of vestibule to the terrestrial Paradise in which there is a mild form of punishment for those who, though shriven of their sins and saved, did not perform works of mercy during their lives. It is interesting that although their pain is temporary and not great, they are punished not for violation of a commandment or the commission of a deadly sin, but for failure to perform a "counsel of perfection."

1535-46 The sweet air, the flowers, the light, and the birdsong are all staples of poems which include a terrestrial paradise. Lacking at this point are the catalogues of birds, gems, and flowers that are usually incorporated, even in secular romances. Some skeletal catalogues appear later in the poem at lines 1907-14 and 2099-104.

1551 welle. The well, a place of refreshment, even a "fountain of youth," has waters flowing from it. Contrary to expectation, it is not the source of the four rivers of Eden (Genesis 2:11-14). It is more reminiscent of the River Lethe, the river of forgetfulness (a kind of renewal) in Dante, Purgatorio 28.25-33.

1561-68 The souls have undergone some kind of purgation and merit salvation, but they must wait until God admits them to Heaven. A does not make it clear when that will be.

1584 lewde mon. A "lewed man" was "a member of the laity, layman, non-cleric" (MED).

1591 Cantaber. Conchobar, Conor O'Brien, the king of Thurmond. Conchobar was a friend of King Cormake. In 1138, however, Cormake was killed by Conchobar's brother, Cormake's father-in-law. For the whole story, see M, pp. 31-36.

1592 Donatus. Donough McCarthy, king of Munster from 1127, was the brother of Cormake.

1600 Caym. Cain, who killed his brother Abel (Genesis 4), was a symbol of murderous wrath and envy.

1607-10 The angel is careful to explain that the kings repented before death. This is necessary to justify their placement in the earthly Paradise, but it also reinforces the point that repentance always remains available even to great sinners.

1620 In the description of the moral rehabilitation of Donatus, A mentions that Donatus gave money to have prayers said for him. This is an example of a suffrage, an especially important part of Dominican teaching from the late twelfth century, but very prominent as an idea in this secularized version of a Benedictine Latin tract.

1635 carbunkyll ston. Carbuncle, which, according to the OED, was said to shine in the dark. See line 2103.

1654 Kyng Cormake. Cormac MacCarthy, king of Munster (1124), dethroned by Turlough O'Connor in 1127. He was murdered in 1138 in his own home, reportedly by some kind of treachery, the eighth of the Irish deadly sins. See explanatory note to lines 23-28. See also G (pp. 316-17), who thinks that the Teampuill Chormaic, which Cormac built, may be the model for the magnificant structure in which Tundale finds him. Cormac was generous to the Irish Benedictine foundation at Regensburg where Marcus, the author of the Latin original, lived. On the relevant Irish history, see M, pp. 31-36.

1667 deykenus. Deacons, members of minor orders; by the time of the composition of the Middle English poem the deaconate was generally a stage in the progress towards major orders (the priesthood) rather than a permanent office.

1673 chalys. A chalice is a vessel, usually of gold or silver, used to hold the water and wine that will become the body and blood of Christ at the Consecration of the Mass. Chalices were often highly ornamented with precious stones.

1674 sensowrys. Censers, the receptacles, often made of precious metals, in which incense was burned in many Church liturgies.

1706-48 Cormake, although saved, must still suffer because of the gravity of his sins. Much about this passage is odd. It is unusual that anyone who has entered the terrestrial Paradise must still suffer pain. Also, when Tundale asks how long Cormake will suffer, the angel gives the strangely specific answer of three hours a day rather than an ultimate duration before the end of suffering. Cormake's position is awkward in that he lived at a time, during the reforms of the early twelfth century, when marriage laws from the Roman Church were being imposed on the Irish. He was reputed to have ordered a murder that would have been mortally sinful under either disposition, and this is duly noted, but his punishments seem to be primarily for lechery.

1724 hayre. A hairshirt. "A shirt made of haircloth, worn next to the skin by ascetics and penitents" (OED). "A penitential garment woven from the hair of mountain goats or camels" (MED). The practice was usually monastic and was often discouraged by the Church as an egoistic excess, though when Thomas à Becket died he was found to be wearing one.

1736 Besyde Seynt Patrycke. This refers to a church, not the saint. G (p. 317) identifies it as probably the metropolitan church of Cashel.

1759 ff. There follows a traditional description of the singing of hymns and carols in the joy of the terrestrial Paradise. Interestingly, in The Vision of Tundale it is spe-cifically the abode of souls who have lived righteously in marriage, souls who have performed works of mercy, and good rulers (lines 1785-96).

1798-1802 This passage paraphrases Christ's invitation to the virtuous to enter Heaven (Matthew 25:24). It also suggests that the souls will be in the terrestrial Paradise until Doomsday, the day of the Last Judgment, when the world ends.

1838 erward. "At or during some earlier time in the past, on a former occasion, formerly, previously" (MED).

1897 grys. "A gray fur; probably from the back of the Russian gray squirrel in winter; also a piece of fur made from such skins" (MED).

1900 besantes. "A golden coin of Byzantium; any of several similar coins minted in Western Europe" or "a bezant used as an ornament" (MED).

1909 Orgons. Probably a large church organ, which might have had as many as 400 pipes, rather than the portable organ or any wind instrument. See Henry Holland Carter, A Dictionary of Middle English Musical Terms, pp. 337-41.

symbals. "A set, or one of a set, of two concave plates of brass or bronze, which emit a clashing, metallic sound when struck together" (Carter, p. 110). OED lists the possibility of "castanets" or a "chime," but the clanging sound of cymbals seems more appropriate to the exuberant circumstances.

tympanys. "A general name for the drum" (Carter, p. 532). OED additionally suggests "any kind of stringed instrument," but gives only one example. The more common meaning seems to fit the boisterous joy of the context.

1910 harpus. A true harp had "eight to eighteen strings of twisted hair, gut, or wire," but the term also was used loosely as the equivalent of other stringed instruments like the "lyre, lute, cithers, etc." (Carter, p. 185).

1912 trebull and meyne and burdown. The trebull (usually called a hautein) is the highest part in a three-part vocal or instrumental composition, with meyne and burdoun as the middle and lower parts (Carter, pp. 200, 278, 510).

1931 frerus, monkys, nonnus, and channonus. A is more specific than the other MSS. Friars were members of mendicant orders (Dominicans, Carmelites, Franciscans, Augustinians), who lived a communal life at "convents" but spent most of their time begging and preaching (and, especially in the case of the Dominicans, studying). Monks lived in cloister, separated from the world, and followed a "rule" such as that of St. Augustine or St. Benedict. Canons were members of religious orders (canons regular) or served communally in a cathedral or major church (canons secular); many groups of canons established endowed communities (chantries) devoted to suffrages in the form of masses and prayers for the dead.

2006 flowre delyce. Fleur-de-lis. Although it is a "flowering plant of the genus Iris," in this context of elegant embellishment it seems more likely "a representation on a coin, a spoon, etc." (MED).

2057 seyrwyse. Here, as opposed to line 453, the phrase seems to have its more usual meaning of "in a diverse way, variously" (MED).

2074 chantryse. Chapels at which canons prayed for the dead; they usually were endowed by benefactors seeking suffrages. They could be free-standing or associated with a neighboring church. They became increasingly popular in the thirteenth century both as a locus of suffrages and as a means of benefaction.

2076 feffud. This verb, from the feudal vocabulary of enfiefment, meant "to put (a person, a religious foundation) in possession of a feudal estate held in heritable tenure" and "to endow, furnish with anything by way of a gift" (MED). Thus, the souls here have given generously to the Church. See also line 2217, where the verb is used of St. Malachy's endowment and support of churches and colleges in addition to his charity to the poor.

2099-2104 A catalogue of gems characteristic of descriptions of the terrestrial Paradise and of otherworldly descriptions in romance. There is some scriptural basis in Apocalypse 21:19-20.

2100 cresolyte. Chrysolite. "A name formerly given to several different gems of a green color, such as zircon, tourmaline, topaz, and amatite" (OED). The catalogue of gems has some apparent overlapping and vagueness.

2102 Iacyntus. "A reddish orange variety of zircon" (OED). "A precious stone of blue (rarely of red) color" (MED). The experts seem baffled by the medieval terminology of precious stones.

smaragdynes. These are generally accepted to be emeralds. Either there was another green precious stone or the narrator in his enthusiasm is repeating himself. The whole catalogue is a bit helter-skelter, suggesting that A simply wanted to accumulate the names of many gems - or was as baffled as the modern experts.

2103 Emastyce. Bloodstones. "A name applied to certain precious stones spotted or streaked with red, supposed in former times to have the power of staunching bleeding," or "The modern heliotrope, a green variety of jasper or quartz, with small spots of red jasper looking like drops of blood" (OED). Again the narrator is either being exuberant or has some clearer characterization of gems in mind.

charbokall. "A carbuncle, a precious stone said to glow in the dark" (MED). "In the Middle Ages and later, besides being a name for the ruby . . . applied to a mythological gem said to emit light in the dark" (OED).

2117-20 Ne hart . . . for all Hysse. An allusion to 1 Corinthians 2:9 (itself a paraphrase of Isaias 64:4): "That eye hath not seen, nor ear heard: neither hath it entered into the heart of man, what things God hath prepared for them that love him."

2122 The nine orders, or choirs, of angels were first enumerated by the man variously known as Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite or the Pseudo-Denys (late fifth cen-tury) as: angels, archangels, virtues, powers, principalities, dominions, thrones, cherubim, and seraphim. The idea is based on Psalms 96:7; 102:20; 148:2, 5 in the Vulgate; and especially on Daniel 7:9-10 and Matthew 18:10. The orthodoxy of the view is attested by St. Gregory the Great (c. 540-604) in his Dialogues and by Aquinas, ST 1.qu.108a6. Although angels are frequently cited in Scripture as messengers of God, the role of the nine orders is primarily to stand before the throne of God singing His praises.

2125 Prevey wordys. The phrase "Goddes privitee" was common to denote the knowledge possessed by God, angels, and the saved, which it was not proper for human beings to know.

2128 opon thyn eyrus and here. Compare Jesus' oft-repeated phrase in the Gospels, "He that hath ears to hear, let him hear" (Matthew 11:15, 13:9, 13:43; Mark 4:9, 4:23, 7:16; Luke 8:8, 14:35). A variation of the phrase is also repeated many times in the Apocalypse of St. John.

2176 Renodan. St. Ruadan (d. 584), abbot of Lothra. It is unclear what the special connection between Tundale and St. Ruadan could have been, especially in view of the chronological disparity. St. Ruadan was one of the "Twelve Apostles of Erin," who came to study with St. Finian in his School of Clonard, Meath, founded about 520.

2193 Seynt Patryk. St. Patrick (c. 389-461), the patron saint of Ireland, has pride of place in this series of prelates. He is believed to have been a Roman Britain taken as a captive to Ireland. He returned later to Ireland to convert the people to Christianity and to organize the Irish Church. Although a historical figure, he has myths, even magical qualities, associated with him; e.g., that he banished all snakes from Ireland and that he could release seven souls from Hell each Saturday.

2204 Celestyen. St. Cellach or Celsus, abbot of Armagh (1105), and later archbishop of Armagh until his death in 1129.

2207 Malachye. St. Malachy, Malachias O'Moore (b. 1094; archbishop of Armagh, 1132-1138). He was ordained by St. Cellach ("Celestyen") in 1119 and was confessor to Cormac MacCarthy ("Cormake"), king of Munster. Malachy, feeling that he had done what he could in the reformation of the Irish Church, resigned from the archbishopric of Armagh in 1138 and returned to Connor where he had been bishop earlier (1124-32). In troubled times he was welcomed by King Cormac, who was killed the same year Malachy resigned Armagh. On his second trip to Rome (1148), he fell sick while visiting his great friend St. Bernard of Clairvaux, founder of the Cistercian reform of the Benedictines, and he is said to have died in St. Bernard's arms. These connections tempt one to find a Cistercian influence on the poem, but no specific Cistercian imprint is apparent. St. Malachy prophesied the number of popes (112) to come before Doomsday. St. Bernard wrote his Life.

2209 Pwope Celestyen. Pope Celestine II was elected in 1143 and died in 1144 after a short reign of six months. His name here must be in error, since Malachy was consecrated archbishop of Armagh in 1132 during the reign of Innocent II (1130-1143). The Latin versions have Pope Innocent, but all English MSS that include this line (A, C, R) make the same error, perhaps influenced by the "Celestyen" in line 2204.

2213 colagys. Presumably colleges of canons whose primary purpose was to pray for the dead, though colleges composed of canons, who were priests, often attached themselves to nearby churches and assisted in the clerical work.

2217 See explanatory note to line 2076.

2222 Crystyne. Bishop of Clogher (1126-39) and older brother of St. Malachy. The Latin designation of his diocese, Lugdoniensis, accounts for Lyon in A and causes M to identify his see as Louth rather than Clogher.

2227 Malachynus. Latinate form of Malachy.

2230 Neomon. Nehemiah O'Morietach, bishop of Cloyne and Ross (1140-49). Sometimes he is erroneously identified as St. Neeman of Cluny, perhaps because of the Latin version of Cloyne - Cluanensis.

2232 Clemy. This is the bishopric assigned to Neomon by A; C has Ylye; P has Ely; R has Clunny. These seem to be various attempts to render the Latin "Cluanensis." See explanatory note to line 2230.

2235-38 Many scholars believe the empty seat to be reserved for St. Bernard of Clairvaux.

2381 Hyheg. Richard Heeg, who transcribed A and various other fifteenth-century MSS. According to M (p. 64), Heeg seems to have seen himself as more than simply a scriptor, or scribe, and therefore felt freer to modify his copy-text. His apparent use of a copy of Marcus, however, suggests a concern for authenticity.

THE VISION OF TUNDALE: TEXTUAL NOTES

I have based my text on National Library of Scotland Advocates' MS 19.3.1 (A), the longest extant version. In the nineteenth century, A was purchased by the poet Robert Southey and given to Sir Walter Scott. The only edition of A, besides a diplomatic edition by W. B. D. D. Turnbull (1843), is Eileen Gardiner's doctoral dissertation (G). G lists variants from British Library MS Cotton Caligula A. ii (C), which has been edited with variants from all other MSS by Rodney Mearns (M), Bodleian Library MS Ashmole 1491 (B), Tokyo, Takamiya MS 32 (olim Penrose 10, olim Penrose 6, olim Delamere) (P), and British Library MS Royal 17. B. xliii (R), which has been edited by Albrecht Wagner with variants from A, B, C. I have made as few changes as possible to A consistent with making sense of the narrative. I have accepted and noted some alterations by G and a few of my own based on B, C, P, R. I have ignored G's changes that seem simply to tidy up the poem, because some rough passages in A contain a specificity that is an attractive characteristic of this MS. I have silently expanded abbreviations and corrected obvious scribal errors such as "whet" for "when" (line 388), "bub" for "but" (837), and emended the scribal practice of occasionally hearing g and k interchangeably as in "styng" for "stynk" (333) and "lonke" for "longe" (1744). In the notes, as in the text, I have replaced obsolete Middle English graphemes with modern equivalents. Fuller manuscript and bibliographical detail precedes the text of the poem. 5 ben awhyle. A: ben wyll awhyle. I have omitted wyll as unusually clumsy and grammatically unnecessary.

10 clanse. A: clanso; C: clense; I have accepted G: clanse as doing least harm to A. Several times A has a mistaken o at the end of a word; subsequently I have corrected these without comment.

14 yere. A: here; G, following C, P: yere.

19 is. A frequently has is for his and vice-versa. I have retained this usage since it does not cause confusion.

24 pride. A: pde with i superscript.

37 tyne. A: tyme; G, following C, P: tyne.

59 for his best. G, following C: as hym lest, is plausible, but I have retained A.

70 deray. A: aray; G, following C: deray.

78 at tho. G, following C, P: to.

108 corale. A: quale; G, following C, P, R: corale. See explanatory note.

110 flytte. A: had; G, following C, P, R: flytte.

123 payne. A: pyne; G, following C, P, R: payne. MED lists pyne as a possible variant, but payne preserves the rhyme with line 124.

126 nether. A: not ther; G, following B: nether.

layned. A: laft; G, following B, C, P, R: layned.

129-30 But he sawe mony a hydwys payne / Or he come to the body agayne. A lacks these two lines, which are important to the sense. G has soundly reconstructed them from B, C, P, R. It is likely that A simply skipped two lines of his exemplar.

133 The poem is divided into ten "passus," seven "gaudia," and the "reversio animae." They are marked in the margins of A. Because it makes more sense, I have begun Passus I here, as does G, rather than at line 135, where it is marked (i passus) in the margin of A. I, like G, have taken a similar liberty with Passus V, which is marked in A opposite line 433, Passus VI, which is marked in A opposite line 553, and Gaudium II, which is marked in A opposite line 1577.

155 fete. A: face. G, C, B, and P read fete.

167 word. A, G: word; B, C, R: worlde. Word is a common variant of world (MED).

176 creidon. A: crendon; B, R: cried; C: cryde; but G: creidon is a possible variant that changes A least.

191 stryft. A: strft is canceled before stryft.

204 harneys. A: hornys; G, following B, P: harneys.

215 thought. A: thoyght; G, following B, C, P, R: thoughtes. I prefer thought, preserving the singular and assuming a scribal error in one grapheme.

215-16 That wykkyd thought that was in thi brest, / Woldyst thu never schowe it to no preste. G, following B, C, P, R, places these lines after line 210. I have left them in their A position.

252 uggly. A: ungdly; G, following C, P, R: uggly. Perhaps A intended ungodly.

269 thei. A: he; C: they.

323 the. A: that; G, following B, C, R: the.

327 brad. A: brdd; C: brode; P, B: brade.

333 stynk. A: styng; C: stynke.

339 dyd. A: dud.

than. Omitted in A. C: thn.

340 pan. A: pon; C: panne.

341 ronnen. A: ronnon; C: ranne.

fyr and yron bothe. A: that yron into the fyr bothe; G, following B, P: fyr and yron bothe.

342 As hit wer wax throw a clothe. I have retained A, though G, following C, P is more felicitous: As molton wax dothe throwe a clothe.

347 dight. A: ordent has some support from C: ordeyned, but G, following B, P, R: dight makes slightly better sense and much better meter.

348 or. A: and; G, following B, C, P, R: or.

yslayn. A: bothe yslayn; G, following B, C, P, R: slayne. To include A: and and bothe yslayn would make it necessary to have killed both parents. The reading in B, C, P, R makes it a matter of killing one parent. Surely, one is enough to de-serve terrible torment.

353 schall. A: schell; C: shall.

357 forth. Omitted in A. C: forth.

363-64 That was bothe darke and wan / And stank of pyche and brymston. These lines are reversed in A but marked by the scribe b, a for correction.

376 snowe. C: snawe, which better suits the rhyme.

382 This. A: Then This, with Then marked for expunction.

389-90 The angell ay before con pas, / And Tundale aftur that sore aferd was. These lines are clumsy, but no obvious reconstruction from other manuscripts seems appre-ciably better without wholesale rewriting.

495 this payne. A: he; G, following C, R: this payne clarifies the line significantly.

529 hys. Omitted in A. G, following C, P, R: hys.

563 Her ynee wer brode and brandon bryght. A: Therin wer brondus and brandon bright; G, following C, P, R: Her ynee wer brode and brandon bright makes a substantial improvement in this line and makes line 564 more effective.

565 waytud. A: waxoud; G, following C, P, R: waytud is a more plausible action at this point in the narrative.

566 pray. A: pay; C: pray.

577 sowles. A: sowlows; G, following C, P, R: sowles.

614 dystruccioun. A: dystruccoun; G, following P, R: dystruccioun.

615 turmentyd. A: turment; G, following C, P, R: turmentyd.

626 she. A: yee. C: she; R: ho.

645 Maygrey is chekys. A: Maygrey in is chekys. I have omitted in since it is not ordinarily included in the proverb, though the person of the pronoun was variable.

647 payne. A: pyne; G, following C, P, R: payne. As in line 123, pyne is possible, but destroys the rhyme with the next line.

687 And seyd. A omits seyd.

699 The angell seyd. A: and that; G, following C, P, R: the angell seyd. Lines 699 and 700 are transposed in A. Accepting The angell seyd restores order to a confusing passage.

727-28 The angelle . . . be noght aferd. These lines are omitted in A. Some connection is needed. I have accepted G's use of B, P, R for line 727 and G's composite from B, C, P, R for line 728.

740 hoke. A: hokeus; G, following B, P: hoke. A destroys the rhyme and does not need -us to form a plural here.

743 had he. G, following B, C, P, R: Tundal had, but A frequently used the pronoun where other MSS use the proper name.

770 bryght. A: bryt; G, following B, C, P, R: bryght. This is probably a simple omission by A, but I have emended it because it would destroy the rhyme with line 769.

799 That full. A: that fowle; G, following B, C, P, R: that full. A was probably distracted by the appearance of fowle later in the line.

799, 801 vermyn. A: venym; G, following B, C, P, R: vermyn. Venym is a possible word, but vermyn better fits this narrative and the tradition of vision literature.

808 cawdoron of drede. A: cawdoron of drede; G, following B, C, P, R: schadowe of dede. The latter makes for an interesting allusion to Vulgate Psalm 22:4, but A makes sense as it is.

814 tokenyng. A: thyng, an eyeslip's repetition from the previous line. C: tokenyne.

816 desseyves. A: dothe save; G, following R: desseyves. Clearly, deception rather than salvation is required in the line, as suggested also by C, P: begyles.

860 then. A: the.

873 lad hym. A: had hym; C: ledde hym; P: him ladde.

903-04 Then wax . . . and muche woo. The manuscripts differ substantially. A makes as much sense as any other if we apply lines 905-06 to line 904 only and not to line 903.

910 vermyn. A: venym; G, following B, C, P, R: vermyn. See note to lines 799, 801.

916 nygh fylled. A: fell neght to; C: nygh filled.

933-34 Her taylys . . . the oddes. A: Her naylus wer bothe gret and longe / All kene hokys wer ther hond. G's reconstruction from B, C, P, R fits the descriptive and narrative situation better - and preserves the rhyme.

963-64 For monkus . . . Holy Kyrke. B, C, P, R all provide metrically smoother lines with better rhyme, but the specificity of A in line 963 and the inclusion of women in line 964 makes me prefer to leave A intact. Line 963 is missing in C.

969 Thei. A: Iuwes; G, following B, C, R: thei. The sentence needs a subject.

971 the. As a reminder of my procedure, A: thei is probably an error for the of the sort I do not ordinarily mention.

973 thus. A: this; C: thus, which the rhyme requires.

1002 dongyll. A: dongyll is unattested, but since A also uses it at lines 1029, 1031, I believe it is the word intended. See explanatory note.

1020 longe. A: narow; G, following C, P, R: longe. Some change is necessary to avoid the awkward repetition from line 1019.

1035 The. A: thys; G, following B, C, R: the. The noun is plural.

1062 as hem liked best. A: at that best kast; G, following R: as hem liked best not only preserves the rhyme but agrees in sense with B, C, P.

1079 dre. A: dyre, with y canceled.

1085 Yet thei. A: This peyn; G, following B, C, R: Yet thei avoids the repetition of peyn in A.

1094 odur smythus. A: non boldly; G, following C, R: oder smythus. A does not make sense without great contortions. C, R fit the context perfectly.

1097 ynoghe. A: ynoght.

1114 After line 1114, I have omitted two lines from A: For why that same company / Foloyddyn the in foly. These lines virtually duplicate lines 1115-16.

1148 grevyd. A: gvyd, with e written superscript.

1188 they con falle. A: they dy con falle, with dy canceled.

1192 Have turned. A: Had ben; emended by G, following C, P, R: Have turned.

1195 clomsyd. A: closyd; G, following C, P: clomsyd. This appears to be a simple omission of m, but I mention it because R also has closyd.

1198 toryve. A: toryvy; G, following C, P, R: toryve. A appears to have been distracted by "stryve" in line 1197 and spoiled the rhyme.

1234 Too Satanas. A: too sanat satanas, with sanat canceled.

1259 on her krocus. A: on her he krocus, with he canceled.

1262 The. A: thei; C: the.

1270 than fast. A: than a fast, with a canceled.

1288 world. A: wold, with r superscript.

1297 Satanas. A: satans, with a superscript.

1356 hit had he. A: his tayle was; G, following R: hit had he. The tayle in A in this line as well as in lines 1355 and 1357 suggests some confusion. G, R provide a significant improvement without changing meaning or rhythm.

1363 gloand. I have retained A: gloand; G, following R: tatred; P: taterede; C: hyt were tatered.

1376 hondes. The d is obscured.

1392 ande. A: armus; G: ande (meaning "breath"), based on R: ende, P: ?nde, and C: breth, seems to make the best of a difficult situation. Certainly it is hard to see armus as suitable in A's own context.

1393 the sowlys. A: the sowk sowlys, with sowk canceled.

1407 angyll. A: anglyll; C: angell.

1420 Adames. A: admes, with a superscript.

1430 That. A: And; G, following C, P, R: That.

1447 fayne. A: faynd; C: fayne.

1457 sumtyme. A: hor tyme; G, following C, P, R: sum tyme. The A scibe may have had his eye on "hom" in line 1456.

1464 Cheffe. A: Thyffe; G, following P, R: Cheffe. Some word indicating leadership or authority is necessary.

1487 have. A: hve; C: have.

1534 After line 1534, A omits two beautiful lines that appear in C, R and are accepted by G: Sone they feld a swete ayre / And [C: They] fond a feld was wonder fayre.

1545 That. Omitted in A.

1570 soo clere. A: soo here clere, with here canceled.

1600 and. A: and; G, following C, R: dyde make the line clearer, but I have left A since it is intelligible and the pejorative adjective is with Caym.

1613 a vow. A: aw vow, with w canceled.

1628 Therfor marcy behovus hom have. A: Therfor behovus hom to have marcy. This line is a real oddity. I have replaced it with C.

1640 ther. A: ther; G, following C: gud mon. A can stand if one assumes that anyone who had reached that place was welcome. C, however, does make the situation clearer.

1643 wonys. A: wowys; C: wones.

1654 Cormake. A: Cornale; G, following C, R: Cormake. A makes the same error at line 1663, thereby suggesting that he genuinely mistook the name.

1690 lege. A: lyke; G, following R: lege.

1698 oft. A: of; R: ofte; C: ofn.

1699 And sum wer. A: and wer; G, following R: and sum wer. The sum is necessary to distinguish between the "pilgrims" and the "religious."

1706 sufforyd. A: had sufforyd. I have omitted had. A seems to have moved from indirect discourse to a quotation. Omitting had makes the whole a quotation.

1724 hayre. A: yron; G, following C, R: hayre.

1731 brent. A is missing a verb. I have supplied brent from R.

1738 hayre. A: peyn; G, following C, R: hayre. Perhaps A did not know what a "hairshirt" was?

1744 longe. A: lonke.

1750 thore. A: throre; C: thore.

1861 schyre. A: cleer; G, following C, R: schyre. I have accepted the change to avoid the repetition with line 1859.

1868 world. A: wold, with r superscript.

1899 whylk. A: walle does not make sense in this description. G, following R: whylk, or C: whych does.

1901-02 And all . . . eyne myght see. A: And with all odur ryches hit was overwent / That noo eyne myght see ne hart myght thynke. These lines are simply so ugly that I have substituted R, though I have retained A's second myght in line 1902.

1907 On. A: And; C: On. instrumentus. A: instrumenstus; C: instrumentes.

1923 So much myrthe as thei made within. This line is repeated in A.

1955-56 But this . . . of that syght. These lines are reversed in A.

1980 swete. A omits, but G, following C, R, accepts.

1995 hyng. A: thing; I have accepted G's emendation to hyng, which improves intelligibility greatly.

2034 flowres. A: fruyt; G, following C, R: flowres. The change must be accepted because tradition encourages and the context demands "flowers."

2053 They. A: He; G, following R: They.

2054 He had hem. A: hym he had; C: he had hem. The plural is needed.

2089 A makes sense but might be clearer without wer feyr.

2102 I have left the greatly imperfect rhyme. C and R have variants of lines 2099-2102 which provide a rhyme at line 2102, but require drastic changes in the names and order of the gems.

2132 turne. A: tne, with ur superscript.

2136 angelles. A: angell; C: angelles.

2142 Renne. A: And renne destroys the syntax.

2147 angelles. A: angell; G, following C, R: angelles.

2148 dwelles. A: dwell; G, following C, R: dwelles.

2157 world. A: wold, with r superscript.

2168 syde. A includes an ill-formed letter between d and e, which may simply be an error.

2181 And seyd. G, following C, R: And seyd. A omits seyd, and a verb is needed.

2189 thes. A: this; G, following C, R: thes.

2200 namly. A: ma namly, with ma canceled.

2220 hym noght. A: hym noght; G, following C, P, R: but lytelle. I have retained A, though the alternative makes more sense and better translates the Latin original.

2223 Lyons. A: Lyon; G, following C, R: Lyons.

2224 possessyons. A: possessyon; G, following C, R: possessyons. I have accepted the changes on the grounds that the plural is better in line 2224 and the name of the diocese in line 2223 is in some doubt. See explanatory note to line 2222.

2276 holely. A: helely; G, following C, R: holely.

2284 body. A: bog body, with bog canceled.

2304 Thy marcé. G, following C, R: have on me marce, but the nature of the outcry seems to allow the omission of the verb.

2360 He repreved hem as Goddus lawe wold. A: How thei schuld be withdon as Goddes wyll wold. I have rejected this line for its sheer ugliness and substituted C.

2381-83 Explicit Tundale . . . coopy was. These lines, the indication of the conclusion of the poem, are indented in A.